1. State two physiological stresses that is induced by exercise.

2. State two factors that is increased when minute ventilation is elevated.

3. State six factors affecting pulmonary ventilation.

4. State five reasons for increase in ventilation work during exercise.

5. Describe the compliance of lungs at high volumes.

6. Describe the elastic recoil of the chest at high thoracic volumes.

7. Explain the change in airway resistance during exercise.

8. Explain why breathing is done through the mouth in high ventilation rates.

9. State the changes that occur to the alveolar ventilation during exercise.

10. Explain the changes in anatomical dead space during exercise.

11. State the changes in arterial partial pressure during exercise.

12. State when the PCO2 will change during exercise.

13. Explain why the PCO2 reduces during exercise.

14. State the changes to the pulmonary blood flow during exercise.

15. State two factors that increases the pulmonary blood flow.

16. Explain why there is increase in the cardiac output and reduction in pulmonary vascular resistance.

17. State the ventilation-perfusion ratio during exercise.

18. State the changes in diffusion through alveolar-capillary barrier.

19. State three reasons that cause the increase in diffusion thorhg the alveolar-capillary barrier.

20. State two factors that influences that gaseous transport during exercise.

21. State two major physiological changes that occur with training.

22. State the limiting factor in exercise in a trained athlete.

23. Explain the increase in oxygen delivery in a trained athlete during exercise.

24. Explain three changes that increases the oxidative capacity of the muscle of a trained athlete.

25. State the changes in maximal ventilation and resting ventilation caused by physical training.

26. State the changes in lactic acid levels in a trained person in exercise and its effect.

27. Explain the changes in pulmonary diffusion capacity in exercise.

28. Explain the physiological stresses of being in high altitudes.

29. Explain the acute effect of being in high altitudes.

30. State several effects of deterioration of nervous system function.

31. State the changes in PO2 and fractional concentration of oxygen in high altitudes.

32. Explain how respiratory alkalosis occurs when in high altitudes.

33. Explain how compression of airways occur while being in high altitudes.

34. State how central chemoreceptors respond to hypoxia in high altitudes.

35. Explain why central chemoreceptors are unresponsive in high altitudes.

36. State two reasons why turbulence of airflow occurs in high altitudes.

37. State the changes in resting alveolar ventilation in high altitudes.

38. Explain why resting alveolar ventilation improves when in high altitudes.

39. Explain the changes to pulmonary blood flow in high altitudes.

40. Explain why there is an increase in CO, BP and HR in high altitudes.

41. State the changes in the pulmonary vessels in high altitudes.

42. Explain the occurance of HAPE (high altitude pulmonary edema).

43. State the factor that increases the right ventricular workload.

44. Describe the two factors that play a role in the changes of diffusion through the alveolar-capillary barrier in high altitudes.

45. There is a change in the gaseous pressure gradient in high altitudes but the diffusion remains more or less the same. State the reason for the maintenance of the diffusion rate.

46. State the effects of hypocapnia in high altitudes on oxygen transport.

47. State the factor that impairs oxygen transport in the lung.

48. State the main short-term compensatory mechanism for maintenance of oxygen delivery in high altitudes.

49. State two effects of being in high altitudes on cerebral circulation.

50. State the effects of hypocapnia and hypoxia on cerebral vessels.

51. State the more prominent effect on cerebral vessels when in high altitudes.

52. State the cause of acute mountain sickness.

53. State the effects of cerebral edema when in high altitudes.

54. State three acclimatisation features in high altitudes.

55. State the compensatory action for respiratory alkalosis.

56. State the time frame it takes for renal compensation for respiratory alkalosis to take place.

57. State how the kidneys respond to respiratory alkalosis.

58. Describe the effectiveness of the kidneys in restoring the normal blood pH

59. State the time frame taken for erythropoiesis to kick in at high altitudes.

60. State the function of erythropoiesis in high altitudes.

61. State the allosteric effector that is increased in concentration and explain why.

62. State the effects of increased 2,3-BPG in the circulating blood.

63. 2,3-BPG shifts the Hb-O2 dissociation curve to the right. Explain the reasons for the Hb-O2 curve to shift to the left.

64. State the body's mechanism in resolving the CNS symptoms.

65. State two causes for vasoconstriction occurs in acclimatization to high altitudes.

66. State the result of the vasoconstriction in alleviating the CNS effects of high altitudes.

67. State the reason for the normalising of CO, BP and HR after adaptation to high altitudes.

68. State the reason for right ventricular hypertrophy among native highlanders.

 

 

 

 

1. State the composition of each normal respiration cycle.

2. State the normal respiration rate in normal adults and newborns.

3. State eight causes of increased respiratory rate.

4. State two regulatory mechanisms of respiration.

5. State two components of the nervous control of respiration.

6. State the location of the voluntary control centre of respiration.

7. State the location of the automatic control centre of respiration.

8. State the component of chemical control of respiration.

9. State two types of chemoreceptors for respiration.

10. Name the two pontine centres of respiration.

11. State the function of the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre.

12. Name the two medullary centres of respiration.

13. State the alternative names for dorsal and ventral group of neurons.

14. State the centre that has neurons for both inspiration and expiration.

15. State the centre that is responsible for the basic rhythm of respiration.

16. State the duration of the ramp signals.

17. State the respiratory control centre that fires the ramp signals.

18. State the duration for which the ramp signal is dormant and explain why.

19. State the site to which the inspiratory centre sends its impulses.

20. State the pathway through which the inspiratory centre sends impulses to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

21. Describe the normal action of expiratory centre during quiet breathing.

22. State when the ventral group of neurons is active.

23. State the centre from which the neurons form the nucleus parabrachialis.

24. State the exact location of the pneumotaxic centre.

25.  State the function of the penumotaxic centre and how it achieves its function.

26. Describe how the pneumotaxic centre controls the inspiratory centre.

27. State what happens to the duration of inspiration when the inspiratory ramp is inhibited.

28. State how the inspiratory ramp is inhibited.

29. State the effects of reduced inspiration time.

30. State two effects of damage to the pneumotaxic centre.

31. Explain why damage to the pneumotaxic centre increases tidal volume.

32. State the location of the apneustic centre.

32. State the relationship between the apneustic centre and the pneumotaxic centre.

33. State the function of the apneustic centre.

34. State the effects of stimulation to the apneustic centre.

35. State the site of the central chemoreceptor.

36. State the compound in which central chemoreceptors are suspended.

37. State the stimulation of the central chemoreceptors.

38. The blood-brain barrier is impermeable to protons. Explain how proton concentration stimulates central chemoreceptors.

39. Name the sets of peripheral chemoreceptors.

40. State the sites at which the carotid body and aortic body are found.

41. State the type of cells found in the peripheral chemoreceptors.

42. State the alternative names for the type I and type II cells of the peripheral chemoreceptors.

43. State the afferent nerves of the carotid and aortic body.

44. State the compound released by glomus cells in hypoxia.

45. Between glial cells and glomus cells, name the cell that has a larger number in the chemoreceptor.

46. State how glomus cells detect hypoxia.

47. Explain how potassium channels of glomus cells reacts in proportion to hypoxia.

48. State how the oxygen needs of the chemoreceptor cells are met.

49. Explain why the chemoreceptors are unaffected by carbon monoxide poisoning.

50. State three substances that stimulate the chemoreceptors in high concentration.

51. Describe the ventilatory response to oxygen lack.

52. Describe the ventilatory response to carbon dioxide.

53. Describe the ventilatory response to increased proton concentration.

54. Define Kussmaul breathing and explain its cause.

55. Explain why ventilation is depressed in vomitting and increased in exercise.

56. Describe the pathway that is activated by lung inflation and deflation.

57. Describe the Hering Breuer Inflation Reflex.

58. Name the sensory nerve endings present in close relation to the pulmonary capillaries.

59. Name three stimuli of the J receptors.

60. State four reactions to the stimulation of J receptors.

61. State two reactions upon the stimulation of lung irritant receptors.

62. Describe the Bezoled Jarisch Reflex.

63. State three drugs that when injected into the coronary arteries bring about apnea.

64. Describe Ondine's Curse.

65. Name three sites from which the respiratory centre receives afferents.

 

1. State two alternative names for the common cold.

2. Name two viruses responsible for the common cold.

3. Describe the nature of the common cold.

4. State the reason for the concern for the common cold.

5. Describe the rhinovirus responsible for the common cold.

6. State two modes of transmission of the rhinovirus.

7. State whether coronovirus is an RNA or DNA virus.

8. State two recent diseases found to be caused by coronoviruses.

9. Define sinusitis.

10. State two viral causes of sinusitis.

11. State three bacterial causes of sinusitis.

12. State the laboratory diagnosis of sinusitis.

13. State the treatment of sinusitis.

 

 

 

 

 

 

14. Describe the streptococcus pneumoniae.

15. State the medium in which it grows and the colonies it forms.

16. State two diseases caused by streptococcus pneumoniae.

 

 

 

 

 

17. Describe the haemophilus influenzae.

18. State the medium in which it grows.

19. State five diseases caused by haemophilus influenzae.

 

 

 

20. Describe the moraxella catarrhalis.

21. State the media in which it grows and describe the colonies it forms.

22. State the diseases caused by moraxella catarrhalis.

23. Define otitis media.

24. Explain how otitis media can occur in a respiratory tract infection.

25. State three causative organisms of otitis media.

26. State two clinical presentations of otitis media.

27. State the laboratory diagnosis for otitis media.

28. State two treatments of otitis media.

29. Explain why otitis media occurs in only some respiratory tract infections.

 

 That's your influenza virus

 

30. Describe the influenza virus.

31. State three types of influenza viruses.

32. Describe how influenza occurs.

33. State two major antigens of the influenza virus.

34. State three systemic symptoms of infection by influenza virus.

35. State three respiratory symptoms of infection by influenza virus.

36. State the complication of infection by influezna virus.

37. State the treatment of influenza.

38. State two prevention steps against influenza.

39. State the common name for pharyngitis.

40. State six causative organisms for pharyngitis.

41. State a causative organism of pharyngitis that is rare due to routine immunization.

42. State the most common causative organism of pharyngitis.

 

 

 

43. Describe streptococcus pyogenes.

44. State the media on which streptococcus pyogenes grows and the colonies it forms.

45. State the diseases caused by streptococcus pyogenes.

46. State the laboratory diagnosis for streptococcus pyogenes infection.

47. State the treatment for streptococcus pyogenes infection.

48. State two conditions that the treatment for streptococcus pyogenes infection is preventing.

49. State the causative organism of acute epiglottitis.

50. Explain why acute epiglottitis is an medical emergency situation.

51. State the group in which acute epiglottitis commonly occurs.

52. State two treatment for acute epiglottitis.

53. Define bronchitis.

54. State two forms of bronchitis.

55. State five causative organisms of acute bronchitis.

56. State the predominant symptom of acute bronchitis.

57. State the treatment of acute bronchitis.

58. Define chronic bronchitis.

59. State two risk factors of chronic bronchitis.

60. State the reason for acute exacerbations.

61. State when antibiotics are used in chronic bronchitis

62. State the age group in which bronchiolitis commonly occurs.

63. State three causative organisms of chronic bronchiolitis.

64. State two clinical features of chronic bronchiolitis.

65. State three treatments of chronic bronchiolitis.

66. Define pneumonia.

67. Explain why it is called captain of the men of death.

68. State two classes of pneumonia.

69. State four viral causes of pneumonia.

70. State the more recent cause of viral pneumonia.

71. State the typical pathogens of bacterial pneumonia.

72. State three atypical pathogens of bacterial pneumonia.

73. State three methods of diagnosing pneumonia.

74. State three antibiotics for pneumonia.

75. State the antibiotic used for atypical pneumonia.

76. State the most important cause of death in hospitalised patients.

77. State the most common cause of aspiration pneumonia.

78. State the most common site of aspiration pneumonia and explain why.

79. State the causative agents of aspiration pneumonia.

80. State the cause of lung abscess.

81. State the laboratory diagnosis of lung abscess.

82. State the treatment of lung abscess.

83. Define pleural effusion.

84. State two sources of the fluid in pleural effusion.

85. State two causes of pleural effusion.

86. State a laboratory diagnosis of pleural effusion.

 

 

 

 

1. State the risk factors predisposing to lung cancer.

2. State the gender more susceptible to lung cancer.

3. State the age at which a person is more susceptible to lung cancer.

4. Describe the 5-year survival rate of patients with lung cancer.

5. State the most important etiological factor of lung cancer.

6. Describe the risk of a passive smoker developing lung cancer.

7. State the major change that occurs to the respiratory tract of habitual smokers.

8. Name two types of lung cancer that has the strongest relationship to smoking.

9. State four substance exposures that increases the risk of lung cancer.

10. Name the disease that is caused by exposure to coal dust.

11. State the duration of exposure it takes to develop coal worker's pneumoconiosis.

12. Name two pulmonary conditions that predisposes to lung cancer.

13. Describe the tendencies for a non-smoker to develop primary lung cancer.

14. State the histologic classes of bronchogenic carcinoma.

15. Name two types of lung cancers that develop in the proximal airways.

16. Name the type of lung cancer that develop in the peripheral pulmonary node.

17. Name the lung cancer that has the tendency to cavitate.

18. Compare the spread of squamous cell carcinoma and small cell lung carcinoma.

19. Describe the spread of adenocarcinoma.

20. Describe the morphology of small cell lung carcinoma.

21. State the shape of the intermediate cell of small cell lung carcinoma.

22. State the position at which lung cancer usually arises.

23. State the part of the respiratory tract at which most of the lesions occur.

24. State the type of lung cancer that arises in the periphery of the lung.

25. Describe the next change after in situ cytologic atypia occurs in the respiratory tract.

26. State the effects of the piling of mucosa when it progresses into a warty growth.

27. State the cause of the epidermal lesions in lung cancer.

28. Describe the gross morphology of lung cancer.

29. State the colour of the tumour in lung cancer.

30. Describe the spread of lung cancer.

31. State three sites to which lung cancer extends intrathoracically.

32. State four favoured sites of lung metastasis.

33. State two types of lung cancer that aggressively spreads.

34. State another carcinoma that parallels adenocarcinoma in its spread.

35. Name a type of lung cancer that is closely associated with history of smoking.

36. State the site at which squamous cell carcinoma usually arises.

37. State the direction of growth of squamous cell carcinomas.

38. State two complications of squamous cell carcinoma when it obstructs a large bronchus.

39. State whether squamous cell carcinoma tends to spread locally or metastatsize.

40. State the type of lung cancer that comprises a third of lung tumours.

41. Describe the influence of cigarette smoking on adenocarcinoma.

42. State the gender more at risk of adenocarcinoma.

43. State the site at which adenocarcinomas arise.

44. State the complication at the site at which adenocarcinomas arise.

45. Describe the effects on the overlying pleura in adenocarcinoma.

46. Describe the growth and spreading rate of adenocarcinoma.

47. State an alternative name of adenocarcinoma and explain the reasons.

48. State the key feature of bronchioloalveolar carcinoma.

49. Describe the growth pattern and rate of adenocarcinoma.

50. State the colour of small cell carcinoma.

51. Describe the mitotic ability of small cell carcinoma.

52. State and explain the alternative name for small cell carcinoma.

53. Describe the "differentiation status" of large cell carcinoma.

54. State five complications of lung cancer.

55. Explain how focal emphysema occurs in lung cancer.

56. Differentiate the complications caused by partial obstruction and total obstruction.

57. State the cause of bronchiectasis.

58. A patient with lung cancer presents with foul-smelling sputum. Explain it.

59. Explain why most of the lung cancer patients are generally in advanced stage when diagnosed.

60. State and differentiate the two forms of tumours found in lung cancer.

61. State two complications of central tumour.

62. State five clinical features of lung cancer.

63. State the form of tumour that causes Horner's syndrome.

64. Explain the cause and features of Horner's syndrome.

65. State five types of paraneoplastic syndrome of lung cancer.

66. State how paraneoplastic syndrome causes hyponatremia. 

67. State the result of adrenocorticotropic hormone imbalance in lung cancer.

68. Describe the serum calcium levels in lung cancer.

69. State a cause of gynecomastia in paraneoplastic syndrome of lung cancer.

70. State a compound associated with carcinoid syndrome.

71. State the histologic type of lung cancer in which hormonal imbalance does not occur.

72. State the histologic type of lung cancer that causes clubbing and HPO.

73. State the type of disorder that results in clubbing.

74. State the histologic type of lung cancer that results in peripheral neuropathy.

75. State the types of paraneoplastic syndromes caused by adenocarcinoma.

76. State the cause of diaphragm paralysis.

77. State the cause of rib destruction in lung cancer.

78. State the laboratory findings required for definitive test.

79. State two types of fluid taken for laboratory tests.

80. State four methods through which tissues for histologic confirmation are taken.

81. State three forms of imaging used to diagnose lung cancer.

82. Describe the images formed with the Xray of a lung cancer patient.

83. State the function of MRI in lung cancer.

84. State the site at which MRI scans and the contrasting agent used.

85. State two ways through which lung cancer can spread.

86. Describe the gross histology of lung cancer.

87. State the main risk for mesothelioma.

88. state the clinical findings of mesothelioma.

89. Describe the morphology of mesothelioma.

90. State the colour of the tumour tissue in mesothelioma.

91. Describe the survival rate of mesothelioma.

 

 

 

 

1. insidious - coming on stealthily, of gradual and subtle development

2. pneumoconiosis - deposites of large amount of dust or other particulate matter in the lungs, causing a tissue reaction

3. bronchiectasis - chornic dilation of one or more bronchi

4. wart - verucca, a hyperplastic epidermal lesion with a horny surface caused by HPV, loosely applied to any various wartlike, nonviral epidermal proliferations

5. ptosis - paralytic drooping of upper eyelid.

6. enpthalmos - sinking of eye

7. carcinoid - a yellow circumscribed tumor arising from enterochromaffin cells

8. HPO - hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy - symmetrical osteitis of four limbs chiefly localised to the phalanges and terminal epiphysis of long bones of forearms and legs, secondary to chronic heart and lung conditions

9. neuropathy - a functional disturbance or pathological change inthe peripheral system sometimes limited to the noninflammatory lesions as opposed to neuritis

 

 

1. State the location of the larynx.

2. State three functions of the larynx.

3. Describe three sphinteric functions of the larynx.

4. State the importance of airway control of the larynx.

5. State the immunological function of the larynx.

6. Name the cartilages of the larynx.

7. Describe the structures that connect the cartilages of the larynx.

8. Name the paired and unpaired cartilages of the larynx.

9. Differentiate the ligament and the membranes connecting the cartilages of the larynx.

10. State the joint type of the cricoarytenoid and cricothyroid joints.

11. State the anatomical level of the larynx.

12. State the structure above the thyroid and the structure connecting the two.

13. Name the two parts of the arytenoid cartilage.

14. Name the ligament connecting the thyroid cartilage to the cricoid cartilage.

15. Name the ligament connecting the cricoid cartilage to the tracheal ring.

16. Name the membrane connected to the epiglottis.

17. Name the structure connecting the epiglottis to the arytenoid cartilage.

18. Name the ligaments connecting the cricoid to the arytenoid cartilage.

19. Describe the laryngeal inlet.

20. State the boundary structures of the laryngeal inlet.

21.

 

more to come...

 

 

 

 

1. Icky gooey picture of larynx

2. Anterior view of larynx

3. Extrinsic muscles of the larynx

4. Intrinsic muscles of the larynx

5. Bones and cartilages of the larynx

 

Those that I really can't get it to show here are:

 

1. Top view of the larynx

2. Cross section of the larynx

3. Various views of thyroid cartilage

 

 

Above: Larynx and oesophagus

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above: The blur words says Function: All of these combine to depress the larynx

 

 

 

 

Hope this one is clear

 

VOCABULARY courtesy of www.dictionary.com

 

Phonation = To utter speech sounds; vocalize